Every visitor stepping into the second courtyard of Topkapı Palace notices a structure with elegant columns and lead-covered domes: the Kubbealtı. This was where the brain of a world empire beat for six centuries, where its destiny was shaped, and where justice was served. The Divan-ı Hümayun, or “Imperial Council,” convened under these domes. However, viewing it as a simple cabinet or council would be missing the essence of understanding the Ottoman State. The Divan-ı Hümayun and its duties were much more than just a place where laws were made; it was a complex and perfect decision-making mechanism where all judicial, administrative, financial, and military arteries of an empire converged, with each member bearing immense responsibility. This mechanism presented the most magnificent example of how a state could be both centralized and just.
Kubbealtı: The Place Where the Empire’s Most Important Decisions Were Made
Located in the Second Courtyard (Alay Meydanı) of Topkapı Palace, Kubbealtı is the name of the venue where the Divan-ı Hümayun convened. It gets its name from the domes above the room where the meetings were held. This was the heart of the Ottoman state organization. In modern terms, Kubbealtı simultaneously functioned as a cabinet, a constitutional court, a supreme court of appeals, and a council of state. From declaring war to signing peace treaties, from collecting taxes to hearing major lawsuits, from the highest-level state appointments to the complaint of an ordinary citizen, every issue concerning the empire was discussed and decided under these domes. Therefore, Kubbealtı was not just a building, but a sacred place where the Ottoman philosophy of justice and governance was concretized.
Members of the Divan: Representatives of the Sultan and Their Duties
The Divan-ı Hümayun consisted of “erkân-ı devlet,” meaning the pillars of the state, each member possessing the highest authority in their respective fields. These members acted as the shadows of the Sultan on earth, making decisions on his behalf. The principal members of the Divan included the Grand Vizier, viziers, Kazaskers, Defterdars, and the Nişancı.
Grand Vizier: The Sultan’s Absolute Deputy
The Grand Vizier (Sadrazam), the chairman and most powerful member of the Divan, was the absolute deputy of the Sultan. The duties of the Grand Vizier covered a wide range, from commanding the army when the Sultan did not join a campaign (Serdar-ı Ekrem) to making all administrative and political appointments and managing the state’s domestic and foreign policy. The symbol of his absolute power was the “Mühr-i Hümâyûn” (Imperial Seal) that he carried. Whoever held the seal was the de facto ruler of the state. All other Divan members and state officials were accountable to him. His decisions held the force of law as long as they were approved by the Sultan.
Kazaskers: Representatives of Justice and Law
In the Divan-ı Hümayun, justice was represented by the Kazaskers on behalf of the ulema class. Divided into two, the Rumeli Kazasker and the Anatolian Kazasker, these officials were the empire’s highest-ranking judges. The Kazasker and the justice system were inseparable. Their duties included:
- Hearing Sharia (based on Islamic law) and customary (based on tradition and Sultanic decrees) lawsuits brought before the Divan.
- Making and supervising the appointments of all qadis (judges) and müderris (madrasa teachers) throughout the empire.
- Ensuring the smooth functioning of the justice system and educational institutions.
In the protocol, the Rumeli Kazasker held a higher position than the Anatolian Kazasker. Their presence guaranteed that every decision made by the Divan passed through the filter of law and justice.
Defterdars: The Heads of Finance
The strength of an empire depended as much on the power of its treasury as on its army. The most authorized officials responsible for financial affairs in the Divan were the Defterdars. Also divided into two, the Rumeli and Anatolian Defterdars, these officials can be considered today’s Ministers of Finance. Their duties included preparing the state budget, collecting taxes, monitoring the treasury’s revenues and expenditures, and paying the salaries (ulufe) of soldiers and civil servants. The economic health of the empire depended on the competence and integrity of the Defterdars.
Nişancı: Guardian of Firmans and Documents
Perhaps one of the most unique and critical members of the Divan was the Nişancı. The role of the Nişancı went far beyond a mere secretarial duty. He was the written memory of the state and the head of the bureaucracy. His duties included:
- Affixing the “tuğra” (the Sultan’s imperial cipher) to all firmans, berat (charters), and kanunnames (law codes) issued on behalf of the Sultan. This process conferred officiality and legal validity to the document.
- Keeping records of conquered lands (tahrir defterleri) and distributing dirliks (timar, zeamet) in these lands.
- Acting as the foremost expert on customary law, i.e., the Sultan’s laws, advising the Divan, and supervising the compliance of decisions with existing laws.
The Nişancı was a key figure who ensured the continuity of the state and bureaucratic order.
A Day at the Divan: Operation and Protocol of Meetings
The Divan-ı Hümayun usually convened four days a week (Saturday, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday) after the morning prayer. Meetings proceeded within a strictly formal and rigid protocol. Early in the morning, the Kubbealtı viziers and other members would take their places. The Divan was open to the public. A peasant from the most remote corner of the empire, or a pasha, could appeal to the Divan to express their grievances. The opportunity to reach the very top of the state directly, without saying “my plaintiff is the qadi, my opponent is the mufti,” was one of the cornerstones of the Ottoman justice system.
The meeting would begin under the chairmanship of the Grand Vizier, first discussing important political and military issues, and then hearing lawsuits. Everyone spoke according to their rank and seniority, and issues were debated at length. Scribes (Divan Kalemi) recorded everything discussed. The meeting would conclude around noon, followed by a feast prepared for the Divan members.
The Eye of the Tower of Justice: The Sultan’s Observation of the Divan
The most interesting and important detail of the Divan meetings was that the Sultan did not directly participate, but could observe them whenever he wished. Behind the Kubbealtı, within the Tower of Justice that rose between the Harem and the Divan Square, there was a latticed window called “Kasr-ı Adl.” From behind this window, the Sultan could listen to all conversations and discussions in the Divan without being seen by anyone. This had an enormous psychological impact on the members. The awareness that the Sultan was watching them at all times encouraged them to be more careful, fairer, and more honest. This “invisible eye” was a silent but powerful symbol of the Sultan’s absolute authority and his ultimate role as the protector of justice.
Arz Odası: Presenting Divan Decisions to the Sultan
After the Divan meeting and feast concluded, the most important ritual of the day took place. The Grand Vizier and other Divan members would proceed from Kubbealtı to the Arz Odası (Chamber of Petition), located at the entrance to the Third Courtyard (Enderun). In the Arz Odası, the Sultan would receive the delegation while seated on his throne. The Grand Vizier would “arz” (present) the topics discussed and decisions made in the Divan to the Sultan one by one. The final word and ultimate approval always belonged to the Sultan. The Sultan could approve, change, or reject the decisions. This “arz” ceremony was an extremely important political ritual that emphasized that the Divan was merely an advisory council and that absolute sovereignty belonged unconditionally to the Sultan.
More Than Just a Council: The Symbolic Meaning of Divan-ı Hümayun
In conclusion, the Divan-ı Hümayun was not merely an administrative body. It was a living symbol of the Ottoman Empire’s state philosophy built on justice, merit, and order. The fact that people of all religions and nations could seek justice there represented the empire’s inclusivity; the fact that most of its members were meritorious individuals from the devşirme system demonstrated the state’s emphasis on talent; and its strict protocol and orderly operation represented the empire’s unshakeable order. Decisions made in the Kubbealtı shaped the lives of millions of people across three continents for centuries, and this council took its place in history as one of the most effective and longest-lasting administrative bodies.
Call to Action (CTA): Explore our comprehensive travel guides to discover Topkapı Palace and other cultural treasures of Istanbul at destinationturkey.tr.
Tags: Divan-ı Hümayun, Ottoman State Organization, Grand Vizier, Kubbealtı, Topkapı Palace, Ottoman Justice System, Kazasker, Nişancı, Ottoman History, Arz Odası.
